ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
I.
Language
.
A.
Language
is a set of symbols used to assign and communicate meaning. It enables us to
name or label the things in our world so we can think and communicate about
them.
B.
Language
as a social product.
C.
Language,
communication and interaction.
D.
Language,
cognition, and reality.
E.
Language
and culture.
II.
Norms.
A.
Norms
as humanly created rules for behavior.
1.
The
production of norms.
a.
The
need for orderly, stable, predictable interactions.
b.
The
role of power in the production of norms.
2.
The reification
of norms.
3.
Renegotiating
and changing norms.
B.
Types
of norms.
1.
Folkways.
2.
Mores.
3.
Taboos.
4.
Rituals.
C.
Social
Control.
1.
Internal
social control.
a.
Socialization
and the internalization of norms.
b.
Ideologies,
beliefs, and values.
2.
External
social control.
a.
Informal
sanctions.
i.
Physical
and verbal reactions.
ii.
Embarrassment
and stigma.
iii.
Avoidance
and ostracization.
iv.
The
importance of informal sanctions in small groups and organizations.
b.
Formal
sanctions.
i.
Formal
sanctions in large organizations.
ii.
Governments,
laws, and police.
iii.
Courts,
hearings, trials, and punishments.
D.
Theories
of deviance.
1.
Deviance
as functional.
2.
Social
disorganization and anomie.
3.
Control
theory.
4.
Structural
strain theory.
5.
Marxist
theories.
6.
Value
conflict theory.
7.
The
social construction of deviance.
8.
Labeling
theory.
9.
Cultural
transmission and differential association.
III.
Values.
A.
Values
are anything members of a culture aspire to or hold in high esteem. Values are
things to be achieved, things considered of great worth or value.
1.
Values
are human creations. They are social products.
2.
Values
can and do become reified.
3.
Values
can be renegotiated and changed.
B.
While
people and groups may disagree as to which are most important, Americans
generally value the following.
1.
Democracy,
liberty, freedom, independence, autonomy, and individual rights.
2.
Capitalism,
competition, hard work, self-discipline, and success.
3.
Wealth,
prosperity, materialism, and consumerism.
4.
Equity,
fairness, and justice.
5.
Equality
of opportunity.
6.
Love,
compassion, humanitarianism, charity, service, and respect for others.
7.
Tolerance,
forgiveness, and acceptance.
8.
Faith,
religion, family, conformity, and tradition.
9.
Nationalism,
patriotism, civic responsibility, and loyalty.
10.
Health,
happiness, and life.
11.
Education,
knowledge, science, technology, and innovation.
C.
Complimentary
and conflicting values.
1.
A
groups values tend to compliment and support one another. They tend to be in
agreement and make sense when considered together. A careful look at the values
above reveals “sets” of values that seem to go together.
2.
However,
it is also possible for values to contradict and conflict with each other,
especially in complex modern industrial societies. For example,
competition and success can be seen as contradictory to humanitarianism,
compassion, service and self-sacrafice; while equity and justice contradict
forgiveness and conformity and tradition contradict tolerance and
acceptance.
3.
In
fact, many social and political problems can be seen as conflicts between
groups emphasizing different values.
D.
The
relationship between norms and values.
IV.
Beliefs
and ideologies.
A.
Beliefs
are the things members of a culture hold to be true. They are the
"facts" accepted by all or most members. Beliefs are not limited to
religious statements, but include all the things a people know and accept as
true, including common sense everyday knowledge.
1.
Like
all other cultural elements, beliefs are humanly created and produced. They are
collective social agreements produced during interaction and reified over time.
What is "true" or "factual" for a given people is what they
collectively agree to be true at that point in time.
2.
Beliefs
can and do change, especially in modern industrial societies. Today we laugh at
things our grandparents used to believe and chances are that our grandchildren
will laugh at many of our beliefs as well.
3.
This
suggests that their is no absolute knowledge or absolute truth. All knowledge
and truth is relative.
B.
Ideologies
are integrated and connected systems of beliefs. Sets of beliefs and
assumptions connected by a common theme or focus. They are often are associated
with specific social institutions or systems and serve to legitimize those
systems.
1.
Some
prominent American ideologies.
a.
Capitalism.
b.
Christianity
(Protestantism).
c.
Individualism
d.
Scientism
e.
Sexism.
f.
Racism.
2.
Ideologies
are, themselves, often related and connected to each other in complex
ideological systems, such that one ideology "makes sense" when
considered with another. They also often serve to legitimize each other.
Religious ideologies often encompass or subsume many of a culture's ideologies,
giving them added legitimacy.
3.
However,
it is also possible for a culture to hold ideologies that are conflicting and
contradictory.
C.
The
relationship between beliefs and values.
V.
Social
Collectives.
A.
Social
collectives such as groups, organizations, communities, institutions, classes,
and societies are also collectively produced symbolic social constructions.
1.
Social
collectives are symbolic entities. They are defined into existence when people
define themselves as a group or are defined as a group by others. They can and
do become reified over time, such that they are seen and treated as real
objective entities. However, they remain fundamentally symbolic entities and as
such can be renegotiated and redefined.
2.
The
symbolic nature of social collectives means that they are typically justified
and maintained by ideological systems and ritualistic behavior.
B.
Although
symbolic entities, social collectives have a real impact on our lives.
a. Collectives as contexts for interaction.
b.
Collectives
and local cultures.
c. Collectives, status, roles, identity, and
the self.
VI.
Statuses
and Roles.
A.
Status,
although related, is not a measure of a persons wealth, power, and prestige. To
speak of "high" or "low" status is somewhat misleading. A
status is a slot or position within a group or society. They tell us who people
are and how they "fit" into the group.
0.
Status
and group membership.
1.
Statuses
as collective social agreements that become reified over time, but which can
and do change.
2.
Society
as a network of inter-related statuses.
3.
The
multiplicity of statuses filled by individuals in modern societies.
4.
Ascribed
and achieved statuses.
5.
Master
statuses--age, sex, race, class.
6.
Status,
prestige, wealth, and power.
7.
Status
inconsistency.
B.
Roles
are norms specifying the rights and responsibilities associated with a
particular status. The term role is often used to mean both a position in
society and role expectations associated with it.
0.
Roles
define what a person in a given status can and should do, as well as what they
can and should expect from others. Roles provide a degree of stability and
predictability, telling how we should respond to others and giving us an idea
of how others should respond to us.
1.
Roles
are negotiated and produced during interaction, and often become reified over
time. However, roles can be renegotiated and changed.
2.
Role
set, role strain, role conflict, and role transition.
3.
Roles,
identity, and the self.
VII.
Cultural
Integration.
A.
Cultural
integration refers to how interconnected, complimentary, and mutually
supportive the various elements of culture are.
B.
Diversity,
complexity, and integration.
C.
Variation
within modern mass cultures.
0.
Diversity
in historical and cultural traditions.
1.
Subcultures.
2.
Counter-cultures.
3.
Local
cultures.
D.
The
mass media and cultural integration.
E.
The
relationship between beliefs, values, norms, and behavior.
0.
The
traditional deterministic view.
1.
The
culture as resource view.
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